-
For
centuries, Jews
and
Christians
have
traditionally
believed
that Moses
was the
author of
the Torah,
or
Pentateuch
-
the
first
five
books of
the OT (Gen,
Ex, Lev,
Num,
Deut).
-
It
was also
assumed that
other OT
books were
authored by
the person
whose name
they bore
(Joshua,
Samuel,
Ezra, etc.).
-
However,
textual
criticism of
the OT has
revealed the
likelihood
that the OT
is a
composite
work that
has gone
through a
lengthy
process of
authorship
and redaction.
-
Scholars
now believe
that the OT
is the
product of:
-
the
combination
of
various oral
and
written
traditions
-
compiled
by various
authors
-
over
centuries
of
Israelite
history.
-
The
name given
to this
theory is
the Documentary
Hypothesis,
which claims
that the OT
is the
product of at
least four
different
authors
or strands
of
tradition:
-
J
or
Yahwist
-
oldest
layer
-
author
regularly
uses
"Yahweh"
for
God
-
portrays
God
with
anthropomorphic
features
(walking
in
the
garden
of
Eden,
etc.)
-
Begins
with
Genesis
2
creation
story
-
Uses
Mt.
Sinai
for
the
place
where
the
Mosaic
covenant
was
established.
-
lived
in
Judah
(southern
kingdom)-
text
is
clearly
loyal
to
David
and
Davidic
dynasty.
-
E
or
Elohist
-
second
oldest
-
author
uses
elohim
for
God
-
written
in
northern
part
of
Israel
in
8th
century
BC
-
begins
with
Abraham
story
and
offers
alternative
versions
of
many
of
the
patriarchal
stories
and
Moses'
reception
of
the
law.
-
After
the fall
of
Israel
to
Assyria
in
722
BC,
the
E
traditions
were
carried
to
Judah
and
combined
with
J.
-
D
or
Deuteronomist
-
one
century
later,
during
the
reign
of
king
Josiah,
a
version
of
Deuteronomy
was
produced
as
part
of a
religious
reform
stressing
a
renewed
loyalty
to
Yahwism.
-
The
book
of Deuteronomy,
or
at
least
part
of
it
was
“discovered”
in
the
temple
during
this
reform,
around
621
BC.
-
Acc.
to
Deut
12:4-6,
there
is
only
one
appropriate
place
to
worship
Yahweh-
this
motivated
Josiah
to
go
throughout
his
kingdom
destroying
rival
sanctuaries.
-
has
a distinct,
cyclical
view
of
history
-
P
or
Priestly
-
composed
right
around
the
time
of
the
Babylonian
Exile
(6th
century
BC).
-
concerned
with
priestly
regulations
such
as
those
found
in
Leviticus.
-
responsible
for
much
of
the legal
material
in
the
Torah
as
well
as
the genealogies.
-
written
at a
time
when
Israel’s
national
identity
was
threatened
by
outside
forces,
which
explains
its
preoccupation
with
genealogies
and
rituals
and
customs.
-
This
source
is
responsible
for
or
was the
final
editor
of
most
of
the
Torah’s
legal
material,
from
Exodus
35
through
Leviticus
to
Numbers
10.
-
P
is
responsible
for:
-
Elohim’s
observance
of
the
first
sabbath
in
Genesis
1.
-
Detailed
Tabernacle
descriptions
in
Exodus
25-31,
35-40.
-
Aaron’s
role
as
Moses’
spokesman
and
Israel’s
first
high
priest.
-
The
account
of
Moses’
death.
-
Finally,
the
Torah as
we have
it may
have
also
been
influenced
by Ezra,
a priest
and
scribe
who
brought
back a
copy of
the
Torah
from
Babylon
when the
Persians
allowed
the Jews
to
return
from
exile around
539 BC.
|
|
genesis
|
- Genesis
1-11 borrows
heavily from
the
literature
of Israel's
ancient
Mediterranean
neighbors.
- Key
points
of this
section
of
Genesis:
- Creation-
7
days
(and
significance
of 7
in
the
Bible
hereafter)
- Humanity's
alienation
from God-
Adam
and
Eve
(the
"fall")
- Origins
of
different nations-
Adam's
descendants/
Noah's
descendants
- Origin
of
different languages-
Tower
of
Babel
(based
on
the
famous
Babylonian
ziggurats)
- In
these 11
chapters,
God
seems to
play an
equal
role in
the
destiny
of all
peoples,
but
starting
in ch.
12, He
focuses
on one
"chosen" family,
that of
the
Patriarchs.
- The
"Patriarchs"
- Abraham,
his son Isaac,
grandson Jacob,
and
Jacob's
12 sons.
- Traditionally,
they
became
the
ancestors
of the
12
tribes
of
Israel.
- Why
is this
important
for NT?
- In
OT, 12
tribes
represent
the
nation
of
Israel.
In NT,
Jesus'
12
apostles
represent
the
"New
Israel"-
all
those
who have
faith.
- Abraham
- The
"founding
father"
(patriarch)
of the
Jewish
religion.
- Name
means
"the
Father
is
exalted."
- Abraham
is
significant
to
Jewish
history
because
of his
covenant
with
God.
- Abraham
is found
worthy
of
forming
the
covenant
for two
reasons:
- He
is
"blameless"
or
righteous
(Gen
17:1)-
he
"walks"
with
God,
meaning
he sees
the face
of God
and
lives,
which
only the
righteous
can do.
(THEME)
- He
is
faithful
to
Yahweh,
which he
proves
when he
is
willing
to
sacrifice
his
"beloved
son,"
Isaac.
(Gen
22:1-19-
THEME)
- Abraham’s
covenant
with Yahweh:
- All
promises
to
Abraham
are
given in
the form
of
theophanies
(appearance
of God)
- Terms
of the
covenant,
for
Yahweh:
- Promises
Abraham
that
his
descendants
will
be
as
"numerous
as
the
stars"-
that
he
will
be
the
father
of a
great
nation.
- Promises
Abraham
land-
Canaan
- Terms
of the
covenant
for
Abraham:
- Promises
to
circumcise
every
male
child
eight
days
after birth.
- Circumcision:
The
author
of
the
circumcision
covenant
in
the
Abraham
stories
probably
wrote
during
the
time
of
the
exiles,
because
circumcision
became
important
during
that
time
for
identification
in
the
community.
- Abraham/Isaac story:
- It
was not
uncommon
in the
Ancient
world
for
parents
to
sacrifice
their
children
to
appease
the gods
in times
of
illness
or
misfortune.
- The
"Binding
of
Isaac"
story is
significant
because
it
suggests
that
Yahweh
did not
desire
human
sacrifice,
but he
did
accept
animal
sacrifice-
still
more,
however,
he
preferred
Abraham's
complete
faith
and
obedience.
- Isaac
- Abraham's
first
born son
is
actually Ishmael,
but he
does not
become
Abraham's
heir,
because
God
promises
him that
his heir
will
come
from Sarah.
- Ishmael
is born
from Hagar,
Sarah's
handmaiden.
But when
Hagar
begins
to look
down on
Sarah,
Sarah
decides
to have
her
expelled
from
their
household.
- God
does not
reject
Ishmael,
however,
he
promises
to make
a great
nation
out of
him
also.
The
religion
of Islam
traces
itself
back to Ishmael.
- Isaac's
name
means
"laughed"-
related
to
Abraham's
and
Sarah's
disbelief
when
Yahweh
tells
them
that
Sarah
will
bear
Abraham
a son in
her old
age,
even
though
she has
been
barren
all her
life.
- Isaac's
birth is
miraculous-
it does
not
happen
naturally,
but
because
God
directly
intervenes
in
Abraham's
and
Sarah's
life.
- Isaac
becomes
the heir
to
Abraham's
fortune-
and to
the
covenant
with Yahweh.
It is
through
him that
the
nation
of
Israel
is
preserved-
even
though
he is
not the
first
born, or
chosen.
- Jacob
- Jacob
becomes
Isaac's
inheritor,
again
even
though
he is
the
younger
brother-
by
tricking
Esau out
of his
birthright
and
inheritance,
but also
fulfilling
a
promise
of the
Lord,
that the
"older
shall
serve
the
younger"
(Gen
25:23).
- In
Gen
25:19-26,
we are
told
that
Isaac's
wife,
Rebekah,
was sterile,
and that
her
pregnancy
with
Esau and
Jacob
was miraculous.
- Jacob's
second
wife, Rachel,
whom he
loved,
was also barren,
and she
miraculously
conceives
children
for her
husband,
the
first of
whom is
Joseph.
- In
Gen
32:23-33, Jacob
wrestles
with an
angel,
and his
victorious
outcome
in the
struggle
leads to
his name
being
changed
to
"Israel"-
"you
contended
with
divine
beings."
- Jacob
winds up
having
12 sons:
- By
Leah:
Reuben,
Simeon, Levi, Judah,
Issachar,
Zebulun
- By
Rachel:
Joseph,
Benjamin
- By
Rachel's
maid,
Bilhah:
Dan,
Naphtali
- By
Leah's
maid,
Zilpah:
Gad,
Asher
- Joseph
- His
brothers
become
jealous
of him
because
of his
dreams.
They
think he
is
arrogant
for
claiming
to have
dreams
that
imply
that in
the
future,
he will
rule
over
them.
(Gen
37:5-11)
- Joseph
winds up
being
sold
into
slavery
in Egypt
by his
jealous brothers.
- While
there,
he
accurately
interprets
pharaoh's
dreams,
predicting
seven
years of
plenty
followed
by seven
years of
famine.
- He
is able
to
prepare
Egypt
for the
famine,
and is
rewarded
by
pharaoh,
who
makes
him his
second
in
command.
- Israel
and
Joseph's
other
brothers
become
victims
of the
famine,
and must
go to
Egypt
for
rations
of food.
- They
are seen
by
Joseph,
who
eventually
reveals
his
identity
to them
and
moves
them
down to
Egypt,
explaining
how the
Hebrews
wind up
in
Egypt.
- Themes:
- 12
representing
12
tribes,
or
nation
of
Israel
- covenant
making
- righteousness
- fidelity/faithfulness
- miraculous
births
- Yahweh's
choice
of the
second
born
over the
first
born, or
rightful
heir.
|
|
exodus
|
- Three
major events
in the
history of
Israel occur
in the book
of Exodus:
- Deliverance
from
bondage
in
Egypt.
- Giving
of the
Mosaic law:
- Law
is
not
only
the
10
Commandments,
but
the
whole
Mosaic
law,
incl.
Num.,
Lev.,
Deut.
- Moses
actually
receives
the
law
in
eight
trips
up
Sinai
over
a 40
year
period.
- The
commandments
are
actually
more
like
general
principles.
- The
laws
in
Lev.
and
Deut.
are
the
specific
application.
- The
divine
name is
revealed.
Yahweh,
"I
am who
am."
- An
outline of
Exodus:
- The
story
begins
at a
time
when a
pharaoh
"who
knew
nothing
of
Joseph,
came to
power in
Egypt."
(Ex 1:8)
- The
Pharaoh
becomes
concerned
with the
increasing
number
of the
Hebrews.
- Initially,
he tries
to
control
them by
forcing
them
into
slavery.
- When
this
does not
work, he
orders
the
Egyptian
midwives
to kill
every
male
born to
a Hebrew
woman.
- When
this
does not
work, he
orders
that all
of the
boys be
thrown
into the
Nile.
- This
sets the
stage for
the story of Moses:
- A
male
child is
born
(2:1-3)
at a
time
when a
tyrant
(pharaoh)
seeks to
kill him
(1:22).
- Child
is given
a name
with
symbolic
significance,
-
"I
drew him
out of
the
water."
(2:10)
- Child
is
protected
from
harm
while in
Egypt,
by pharaoh's
daughter
(2:5-9).
- Moses
comes
out of
Egypt
(12:37-42).
- He
parts,
or
"passes
through"
the
waters
of the
Red Sea
(14:15-22).
- He
goes
into the
wilderness
to be
tested
for a
long
period
of time
(40
years)
(16:1).
- He
goes up
Mt.
Sinai
and
delivers
God's
law to
those
that
have
followed
him.
- The
Plague
Narratives
&
Pharaoh's
Hardened
Heart
- Exodus
4:21
- Yahweh
tells
Moses to
return
to Egypt
and
demonstrate
"the
wonders
I have
put in
your
power"
to
Pharaoh.
- In
the NAB,
Yahweh
next
tells
Moses
that
Pharaoh
will not
let the
people
go
because
Yahweh
will
"make
him
obstinate."
- A
better
translation
is
"harden
his
heart."
(See
footnote
for
4:21)
- The
phrase
is
used
in
reference
to
each
of
the
ten
plagues.
- The
NAB's
translation
leaves
us in a
difficult
position:
If God
is
supposed
to be
just,
how can
we
justify
his
deliberately
making
Pharaoh
obstinate,
in light
of the
consequences
it
produces?
- Esp.
the
death
of
the
Egyptian
first-born.
- It
has been
suggested
that
this
story
needs to
be
understood
in light
of
Egyptian
mythology,
so that
Yahweh
is not
only in
conflict
with
Pharaoh
(who
himself
was seen
as a
God),
but also
with the
entire
Egyptian
pantheon.
- Two
passages
are
important:
- Exodus 12:12-
"For
on
this
same
night
I
will
go
through
Egypt,
striking
down
every
first-born
of
the
land,
both
man
and
beast,
and
executing
judgment
on
all
the
gods
of
Egypt-
I,
the
Lord!"
- Numbers 33:4-
"While
the
Egyptians
buried
their
first
born
all
of
whom
the
Lord
had
struck
down;
on
their
gods,
too,
the
Lord
executed
judgments."
- Who
were the
Egyptian
gods?
- Hapi
was
god
of
the
Nile.
- First
plague
(Ex
7:14-24)=
The
Nile
turns
into
blood,
or
"bleeds."
- Heket
was
goddess
of
childbirth,
represented
as a
frog.
- Second
plague
(Ex
7:25-29)=
Yahweh
causes
a
swarm
of
frogs.
- Hathor
was
sky-goddess,
represented
as a
cow.
- Fifth
plague
(Ex
9:1-7)=
A
pestilence
kills
Egypt's
livestock.
- Seth
was
god
of
wind
and
storm.
- Seventh
plague
(Ex
9:13-35)=
Yahweh
causes
a
hail
storm,
killing
everything
in
the
open,
including
crops...
- Min
was
god
of
fertility
and
protector
of
crops.
- Eighth
plague
(Ex
10:1-20)=
Yahweh
sends
a
plague
of
locusts
to
devour
the
remaining
crops.
- Amon-re
was
the
sun-god,
who
symbolized
new
life
every
day
when
he
rose
in
the
east,
and
death
when
he
set
in
the
evening
in
the
west.
- Ninth
plague
(Ex
10:21-29)=
Yahweh
controls
the
sun,
causing
darkness
for
three
days.
- Osiris
was
the
judge
of
the
dead,
and
Pharaoh
(himself
considered
to
be a
god)
was
seen
as
his
son.
- Tenth
plague
(Ex
12:29-30)=
Yahweh
kills
all
of
the
first-born
of
Egypt.
- Two
more
references:
- The
serpent
was
the
symbol
of
Pharaoh's
power
(gold
serpents
have
been
found
on
the
crowns
of
the
Pharaohs).
- In
Exodus 7:13,
Aaron
turns
his
staff
into
a
snake.
When
Pharaoh's
magicians
do
the
same
thing,
Aaron's
snake
devours
their
snakes.
- Finally,
in
Egyptian
mythology,
when
a
person
died,
Osiris
would
judge
how
good
a
person
he
had
been
by
weighing
his
heart
on a
scale
against
a feather.
- If
your
heart
weighed
more
than
the
feather,
then
you
were
judged
guilty
and
condemned
to
oblivion
(no
afterlife).
- If
your
heart
weighed
less
than
the
feather,
you
were
innocent,
and
you
were
allowed
to
live
forever.
- Egyptians
believed
that
the
Pharaohs
were
perfect-
and
were
therefore
always
judged
innocent
and
allowed
to
live
forever.
- This
is
the
real
meaning
behind
Yahweh
"hardening
Pharaoh's
heart"-
he
is
not
making
him
obstinate,
but
making
his
heart
heavy,
or
judging
him
as
guilty
or sinful-
and
again
demonstrating
his
power
over
the
Egyptian
gods.
- The
Passover
- The
Passover
Ritual
is
prescribed
in Ex 12.
- The
month of
the
Passover
becomes the
beginning
of the
Jewish
religious year.
- Passover
is
celebrated
on the
10th day
of the
first
month (Abib/Nisan).
- Each
house
participating
in the
ritual
must
procure
a lamb.
- Must
be a
year
old male.
- Must
be
without
blemish
(i.e.
clean,
pure).
- None
of
its
bones
can
be
broken
(Ex
12:46).
- Lamb
is
slaughtered
during
evening
twilight
on
14th
day
of
the
month.
- Lamb's
blood
is
applied
to
the
doorposts
and
lintel
of
every
house
in
which
lamb
is
eaten,
with
a sprig of
hyssop
(Ex
12:22).
- Lamb
was
roasted
whole.
- None
of
it
was
kept
over-
whatever
was
left
was
burned
the
next
morning.
- It
was
eaten
"with
your
loins
girt,
sandals
on
your
feet
and
your
staff
in
hand,
...like
those
who
are
in
flight."
(Ex
12:11)
- It
was
eaten
with:
- Unleavened
bread-
because
the
Israelites
did
not
have
time
to
let
the
bread
leaven.
- Bitter herbs-
to
remind
them
of
their
bitter
hardship
in
Egypt.
- After
the
Passover,
the
Feast of
Unleavened
Bread
begins,
lasting
for
seven days:
- From
the
evening
of
the
14th
day
of
the
month
to
the
evening
of
the
21st
day.
- Houses
must
be
cleared
of
all
leaven
for
the
entire
seven
days.
- Anyone
who
eats
leaven
during
this
time
is
"cut
off
from
Israel."
- By
the 8th
Century
B.C, the
ritual
has
changed
(2 Chron
30:1-27):
- The
Levites
(priests)
oversee
the
slaughter
of
the
lambs.
- By
the 7th
Century
B.C. (2
Chron
35:1-19):
- King
Josiah
decrees
that
the
Passover
must
be
celebrated
in
or
around
Jerusalem.
- By
the 1st
Century
A.D.
- All
Israelite
males
were
expected
to
be
in
Jerusalem
three
times
annually,
for
three
feasts:
- The
Passover
- Weeks/Pentecost
- Tabernacles
- This
could
cause
the
population
of
the
city
to
swell
to
anywhere
from
200,000
to 3
mill.,
often
causing
a
tense
situation.
- There
was
a
Day
of
Preparation
before
the
feast,
and
the
lambs
were
slaughtered
in
the
temple
in
the
early
afternoon
of
this
day
(before
sunset,
when
a
new
day
began).
- That
evening
(the
start
of
the
new
day)
was
when
the
Passover
meal
was
eaten.
- There
was
a
candlelight
search
for
leaven
throughout
the
city.
- The
dinner
was
taken
reclining
(rather
than
standing,
as
in
OT
times).
- The
meal:
- roasted
lamb
- bitter
herbs
- unleavened
bread
- two-four
cups
of
wine
drank
at
specific
times
throughout
the
meal.
- The
meal
ended
with
the
singing
of
the
Hallel
(Psalms
114-118).
- Try
to
imagine
the
situation
in the
first
century
A.D.,
when
Jesus
appears
in
Jerusalem,
and
celebrates
the
Passover/
Last
Supper.
- The
city's
population had
swelled to
possibly triple
its normal size.
The streets were
literally filled
with people.
- The
temple would be
filled with
travelers, in
the court of
Gentiles
exchanging their
currency (with
pagan gods on
it) for Jewish
currency, so
that they could
buy lambs to
sacrifice for
the feast.
- The
whole purpose of
the feast was to
celebrate being
delivered from
oppression in
Egypt by Yahweh,
and being given
the Promised
Land. It was a
celebration of
Jewish freedom
and
independence.
- And
yet, ironically,
those in the
courtyards of
the temple could
look up and see
a legion of
Roman soldiers
around the
perimeter of the
temple staring
down at them.
- The
Romans knew of
the Jewish
expectation of a
Messiah, and
they knew that
those
expectations
would be
especially high
at the time of
the Passover.
- Pilate
himself would
leave his home
at Caesarea to
come to
Jerusalem to
oversee the
soldiers at the
feast.
- They
were there to
control the
crowds, in case
a riot broke
out.
- They
served as a
continual
reminder of
Roman domination
and oppression,
and their
presence often
upset and
offended the
Jews, who could
become hostile
as a result.
- It
becomes clear
why the Passover
is so
significant in
the gospels;
clearly those
Jews who were
expecting to be
delivered from
Roman oppression
would have seen
the
Passover as the perfect
time for God to
act, through a
mediator who
would lead them
against Rome.
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the mosaic
law
|
- The Mosaic Law spans the
books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
- Law
comes from God,
not Moses. It
comes through
Moses but does
not originate
with him. To
disobey it is
not to offend
Moses, but God
himself.
- According
to the OT, Moses
does not receive
the laws in one
trip up Mt.
Sinai, but in
eight trips over
forty years.
- Many
of Israel's laws
deal with highly
specialized and
specific
situations. More
"common"
situations are
not discussed.
- Laws
deal with
seduction,
adultery, etc.,
but no laws
explain the
marriage
ceremony.
- The
law, or
"Torah,"
assumes an oral
law with which
the reader is
familiar, but
which is not
stated in the
OT.
- There
are three
collections of
laws in the OT:
- Exodus
21:1-23:12
(The Covenant
Code)
- Leviticus
17-26
(The Holiness
Code)
- Deuteronomy
12-28
- One
thing that is
unique about
Israelite
culture is its
system of laws:
- Most
peoples in Ancient Near Eastern
cultures were
motivated to
follow their
laws out of fear
of retribution;
if they did not
follow the law,
they would be
punished.
- Israelites
followed the law
out of a desire
to be righteous,
or close to God.
- The
claim of
Leviticus 19:2
is important:
"Be holy
for I the Lord
God am
holy"
- Israelites
saw following
the law as
responding to
the divine
command, as
being
sanctified, or
holy.
- The
Biblical notion
of holiness is
associated with
that which is
set apart
(consecrated).
- Observing
the Mosaic law
meant that the
Jews had
separated
themselves from:
- Idolatry
-
Secularism
-
The vulgar and
profane
(unclean)
- The
law establish
sanctity in
three ways:
- Sanctity
of person- laws
dealing with
eating habits
(dietary laws),
personal hygiene
(leprosy laws),
dress (Nazirite)
and speech
(taking the
Lord's name in
vain).
- Sanctity
of time- Sabbath
laws, and
festivals.
- Sanctity
of place- Temple
laws, synagogue
laws.
- Distinction
between clean
and unclean
(regarding food,
hygiene, etc.)
was spiritual
more than
physical.
- By
distinguishing
between clean
and unclean in
the realm of
food, observers
of the Torah
disciplined
themselves to do
so in moral,
ethical, and
spiritual
realms.
- Jews
could separate
themselves
internally
(moral laws) and
externally
(cultic laws).
- What
was
unique/innovative
about Israel's
laws?
- They
did not
distinguish
between social
classes, with
the exception of
slaves.
- Biblical
law is primarily
concerned with
preserving human
dignity, and so
it is concerned
with protecting
the rights of
the poor and
weak (the
"orphan and
widow").
- Torah
puts human life
above private
property.
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